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 The "Journal of Spanish, Portuguese, and Italian Crypto Jews,

 

“Crypto-Judaic Identity and DNA Testing: Potentials, Problems, and Ethical Issues”

Abraham D. Lavender, Ph.D.

Department of Sociology and Anthropology
Florida International University
Miami, FL 33199
May 29, 2008

lavender@fiu.edu

 

Updated version of  “Ethical Issues in Crypto-Judaic Research.” Paper presented at the Sixteenth Annual Conference, Society for Crypto-Judaic Studies, El Paso, Texas, August 7, 2006.

 

 

            Genetic testing has become a major form of research in the last few decades. Reactions have ranged from those who view it as the definitive answer to long-sought questions to those who view it as a resurgence of the racism of the early 1900s eugenics movement. There also is some concern that “Big Brother” either in the form of a governmental entity (e.g., a police force) or a private entity (e.g., an insurance company) will use genetic information in an illegal and unethical manner. Despite these concerns, genetic testing, including for genealogical purposes, has been growing rapidly. Jewish families have been a part of this increasing interest, and for people searching for a secret crypto-Judaic heritage, DNA has also been of special importance.

            What are the potential benefits, problems, and ethical issues involved with DNA research, especially when researching possible crypto-Jewish ancestry? From an ethical perspective, anyone advising someone to undergo testing should answer several questions before research begins. The adviser should make sure that the person being tested knows which questions about potential Jewish ancestry can and cannot be answered by DNA testing, and should advise the person of potential embarrassing or disappointing results. Some specific medical problems are found more frequently in individuals with Jewish ancestries, and the advisor must also be sensitive to this situation.

            1. The most frequent question concerning possible crypto-Jewish identity and genetic research is: Can I prove my Jewish heritage using DNA tests? This question in reality is based on another question: Is there a Jewish gene that differs from non-Jewish genes?

            In 1994 Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza published his The History and Geography of Human Genes, a book and atlas showing DNA relationships between scores of national and ethnic groups throughout the world. Cavalli-Sforza, born in Genoa, Italy, in 1922, became a professor of genetics at Stanford University, Palo Alto, California, in 1970, and is the founder of genetic anthropology. For our purposes here, his major contribution is his explanation and demonstration that groups genetically overlap and/or merge with each other on a continuum that has few dividing points (Lavender, 2006). Many other researchers have now added to his conclusions in more detail, including researches who have analyzed Jewish genetics.

            We now can answer the question asked earlier: Is there a Jewish gene that differs from non-Jewish genes which potentially can prove Jewish heritage? The simple answer to this question is no, although we will see that this simple statement will be modified. One reason for this negative answer is that Jews did not originate as a distinct genetic group. Historically, Jews were part of the Middle East, and their major genetic pattern is a Middle Eastern genetic pattern that is shared with other Middle Eastern groups. A second reason is that Jews historically have intermixed genetically with other groups. Millions of Jews have become Christians (and to a lesser but significant degree, Muslims) either through force, social pressure, or choice. Jewish “genes” thus have become a noticeable part of some non-Jewish communities. After the crushing defeat of Israel in 135 C.E., many of the seven million Jews in the world “disappeared” into the Gentile world. In modern history, the Inquisitions in Spain and Portugal are the major examples of large-scale conversions to Christianity, and it is from these conversions that most crypto-Jews descend. Hence, this point is of major importance to this paper.

            Jewish writers usually have emphasized the loss of Jews throughout history but usually have overlooked the numerous individuals who converted to Judaism and joined Jewish communities. But, the mixing has gone both ways. Particularly in the early centuries of Judaism there were many non-Jewish individuals who merged into the “Hebrew tribe” (Patai, 1971). There also are special situations such as the Khazars in the area of Georgia who converted to Judaism in the seventh century C.E. The number of Khazars involved is still debated, but clearly some non-Semitic genetic patterns entered Ashkenazi communities (Brook, 1999). Numerous other examples of both out-flow and in-flow are found in the literature (see Lavender, 2005, for a more details).

            What is the genetic composition of Jewish communities today? The extent of genetic intermixing of Jews and non-Jews has been the topic of a number of recent genetic studies, with the majority of researchers suggesting little interaction during nearly 2000 years in the diaspora. Space prohibits discussion of all of the genetic studies on this topic, but to give an idea of the overall findings, results of some of the major studies follow.


 

            Considering DNA patterns of Jewish women, Tikochenski et al (1991) concluded that Jewish women descended from a diversity of maternal lineages that had been distinct for four to five thousand years. Thomas et al, in 2002, concluded that, contrary to non-Jews, there was greater differentiation for mtDNA than for the male Y-chromosome, and concluded that the cultural practice of female-defined ethnicity has had a pronounced effect on patterns of genetic variation (p. 1417).

            Considering DNA patterns for Jewish men, Nebel et al (2000) found a large genetic relationship between Jews and Palestinians, but in a 2001 study (with different groups in the sample) they found an even higher relationship of Jews with Iraquis and Kurds. These authors conclude that the common genetic background shared by Jews and other Middle Eastern groups predates the division of Middle Easterners into different ethnic groups (p. 1106), and that Sephardim and Ashkenazim have close (but not exact) genetic patterns.

            While Nebel and others have shown a genetic relationship between Jewish and non-Jewish men in the Middle East, other researchers have shown the strong degree to which Jewish men in various parts of the world have maintained a basically Middle East DNA pattern even after two thousand or more years in diaspora (e.g., Livshits et al, 1991). In 2000, Hammer et al also concluded that most Jewish groups were similar to each other, had experienced little genetic admixture with non-Jewish groups, and still overall had a strong genetic similarity with Middle Eastern non-Jews. But, even a small per-generation intermixture can add up over about 2000 years and sixty generations. Santachiara et al (1993, p. 63) conclude that Ashkenazim have about 25% non-Jewish Y (male) chromosomes, representing about one half of one percent of admixture per generation during centuries in the diaspora (p. 63). In 2004, Behar et al came to the same general conclusions although they suggested a much lower admixture rate (p. 362). These results also are discussed in more detail in Lavender (2005). Results are similar for Sephardim.

            Specifically looking at descendants of Jews and crypto-Jews of Iberia, a Middle Eastern genetic pattern is suggestive of Jewish ancestry. However, there also were Arabs in Spain who also might have had a Middle East genetic pattern. This possibility must be considered, although there were many more Jews than Arabs in Spain by the time of the Inquisition, and most Arabs and/or Moors went south or east to Arab regions rather than to Europe and the Americas.

 

            2. A second question is: But if I have the Cohen Gene, doesn’t that prove my Jewish heritage? Since 1998, when Thomas et al published their “Origins of Old Testament Priests,” specific attention has been given to the so-called “Cohen Gene” or the Cohen Modal Haplotype (CMH). Analyzing a specific DNA pattern that was found among men who claimed to be descended from ancient priests (Cohanim) of Israel, the researchers found that this specific pattern was routinely found among Cohanim, but very seldom found among other Jewish men. Using mutations among Cohenim today, and going backwards, they suggested that this pattern could have been originated in the time of Aaron, the first High Priest.

            A descendant of crypto-Jews who has the Cohen Modal Haplotype probably does have Jewish ancestors. However, one problem with using the CMH is that only about five percent of Jewish men have this haplotype, thus drastically reducing its usefulness. Another problem is that the CMH is also found among a small percentage of non-Jewish men of Middle Eastern heritage. Nebel et al (2001) found that the CMH was found among 10.1% of Kurdish Jews, 7.6% of Ashkenazim, and 6.4% of Sephardim, but that it also was found among 2.1% of Palestinian Arabs and 1.1% of Muslim Kurds. The CMH and the most frequent Muslim Kurdish haplotype (MKH) are the same on five markers (out of six) and very close on the other marker. The MKH is shared by 9.5% of Muslim Kurds and 1.4% of Palestinian Arabs, but it is also found among 2.6% of Sephardim, 2.0% of Kurdish Jews, and 1.3% of Ashkenazim. The general conclusion is that these similarities result mostly from the sharing of ancient genetic patterns, and not from more recent admixture between the groups (p. 1099). As Rabbi Yaakov Kleiman has worded it, the CMH is “likely the marker of the Jews’ and Arabs’ shared Patriarch, Abraham” (2004: 20). Undoubtedly, some Palestinian Muslims and Christians are descendants of Jews who converted under centuries of occupation, further complicating this issue. It also must be noted that about one fourth to one third of men who claim Cohen status do not have the Cohen Modal Haplotype, another factor that can cause disappointment and frustration to crypto-Jewish descendants who have surnames suggesting Cohen ancestry.

 

            3. A third question is: What if I don’t have a Middle Eastern genetic pattern? Indications are that about one-third of Jewish men do not have a Middle East genetic pattern. In most cases, this probably results from a non-Jewish male ancestor at some point in history, either before or after the diaspora. It is safe to assume that most of the descendants of these men have been practicing Jews for centuries, with no question about their membership in a Jewish community. Nevertheless, this presents another hurdle in trying to convince others of one’s Jewish ancestry. Of course, this possibility is shared by “born Jews” as well as by crypto-Jewish descendants, and might be one reason why some “born Jews” are hesitant to have their DNA tested. Some people would rather not know. This is a misguided reaction, but is frequently found because of the belief some people have about “a Jewish gene” being important.

            Considering the importance put on the female line of descent, especially by traditional Jews, the findings of Thomas et al (2002) and Behar et al (2006) are very interesting. Thomas et al found that there were major differences in female (mtDNA) lineages between different Ashkenazi communities. They concluded  that different Ashkenazi communities each had a small, core group of maternal founders, and that these maternal founders probably were non-Jewish women from the surrounding non-Jewish community.

            The DNA heritage of Sephardic women is notably different from that of Ashkenazi women. In an extensive and scholarly research project only recently (April 30, 2008) made available online by Behar et al, in a section on “Anatolian Jews and the Iberian Expulsion,” they conclude that “The sojourn of Jews to Antolia during the last 2 millenia is particularly complex and one can assume that the variation in the Turkic Jewish mtDNA pool encompasses maternal lineages, reflecting different demographic events. They may derive from: (i) relatively recent (here–within the last few millennia) Levantine ancestry, ‘carried back’ to Anatolia and elsewhere in the Near East by Sephardic (Iberian) Jews around 500 years ago; (ii) putative ancestral Iberian mtDNA variants, introduced into Sephardic gene pool by admixture during their long stay in this peninsula; (iii) Jewish mtDNA variants introduced to the Turkic Jewish mtDNA pool via different routes attrituable to the attractiveness of the centre during the periods of Byzantine and Ottoman dominance. (iv) Turkic Jewish mtDNA variants may encompass ancient Anatolian mtDNA variants, persisting there since much more remote prehistoric times (v) mtDNA variants of Romaniots Jews who lived in small numbers in the respective places to which the Spanish exiles fled in Anatolia” (pp. 11-12). Behar et al conclude that the Sephardic female lineage is very different from the Ashkenazic female lineage. Among the 1,142 “non-Ashkenazi” Jewish women in the sample were 243 “Iberian Exiles” women from Turkey (123), Bulgaria (71), Belmonte, Portugal (30), Italy (9), former Yugoslavia (1), and miscellaneous (9). The reader is encouraged to read the 16-page report. See Behar (“Counting the Founders”) in my references below.

 

            4. A Fourth Question is: What if my DNA does not match other members of my family? This question can raise important issues, and requires delicate explanations. Again, this situation happens among all groups of people who have DNA tests, and is certainly not unique to those with crypto-Judaic heritage. This might also be a major reason that some people refuse to have their DNA tested. The assumption usually is that there was an out-of-wedlock birth at some point in the past, either in recent or distant history. There is no question that such situations have occurred, either in a nonmarital situation or in an extramarital situation. In a recent study in England, for example, Baker (2002) has suggested that about 10% of people do not have the genetic father which they think they have. This varies tremendously dependent on some variables, especially social class. Nevertheless, this situation is part of reality and must be faced. In fact, some authors conclude that Judaism changed from a paternal-based identity to a female-based identity because of the large number of rapes which could result when Jews were attacked in anti-Semitic settings. On the other hand, throughout history there have been informal adoptions. In recent centuries in Europe, for example, large numbers of children were orphaned and raised by people other than their genetic parents, and frequently ended up with a surname other than that of their genetic father. Formal adoptions, when unknown, also present problems.

 

            5. A fifth question is: If I have indications of Jewish genetic ancestry, does that mean I am Jewish? The answer to this question is based on religious and personal attitudes. From an Halachic perspective, one’s Jewish ancestry does not count if one is not born Jewish. On the other hand, if one is born Jewish, and does not explicitly reject Judaism, one is presumed to be Jewish even if one is an atheist. This is an emotional issue, viewed as a double standard, for those descendants of crypto-Jews who consider themselves Jewish and practice Judaism and who object to being required to undergo a conversion rather than a return ceremony. Rabbi Marc Angel, an Orthodox rabbi of Sephardic heritage, writes that some descendants of crypto-Jews “feel that their Jewish ‘blood’–their genetic tie to Jewish ancestors–was somehow a driving force in their decision to ‘come back home to the religion of their ancestors” (p. 93). But, he also requires a halakhic conversion even while writing that “these individuals do have a claim to Jewishness that must not be ignored” (p. 97).  Complexity also arises when considering a descendant of an ancestor with the Cohen Modal Haplotype. For example, John Kerry, the Democratic candidate for President in 2004, is the paternal grandson of Fritz Kohn of Austria who was (presumably, based on his name) a Cohen who converted to Catholicism and changed the surname to Kerry because of virulent anti-Semitism. John Kerry’s brother, Cameron Kerry, converted “back” to Judaism when he married a Jewish woman. Is he a Cohen? While not discussing the Kerry family, see Rabbi Yaakov Kleiman (2004) for a discussion of the Cohen issue. Also see www.Cohen-Levi.org for detailed information.

           

            DNA has tremendous potentials to help crypto-Jews and others learn more about their Jewish origins. But, as we have seen, there also are complex questions which frequently raise complex ethical issues.

 

References:

 

Angel, Rabbi Marc D. Choosing to Be Jewish: The Orthodox Road to Conversion. Jersey City: KTAV Publishing House, 2005.

Baker, Robin. Sperm Wars: Infidelity, Sexual Conflict and the Bedroom Battles. London: Trafalgar Square, 2002.

Behar, Doron et al. “Contrasting Patterns of Y Chromosome Variation in Ashkenazi Jewish and Host Non-Jewish European Populations.” Human Genetics, Volume 114, 2004, pp. 354-365.

Behar, Doron et al. “Counting the Founders: The Matrilineal Genetic Ancestry of the Jewish Diaspora.” www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=2323359 (or, go to goggle and put in Behar Jewish women DNA matrilineal, and scroll down to the article “Counting the Founders”). April 30, 2008.

Behar, Doron et al. "The Matrilineal Ancestry of Ashkenazi Jewry: Portrait of a Recent Founder Event." American Journal of Human Genetics, Volume 78, 2006, pp. 487-497. 

Brook, Kevin Alan. The Jews of Khazaria. Northvale, N.J.: Jason Aronson, Inc., 1999.

Cavalli-Sforza, Luigi Luca. The History and Geography of Human Genes.  (1994). Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994.

Cohen, Shaye. The Beginnings of Jewishness: Boundaries, Varieties, Uncertainties. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999.

Hammer, Michael F. et al. “Jewish and Middle Eastern non-Jewish Populations Share a Common Pool of Y-Chromosome Biallelic Haplotypes.” PNAS, Volume 97, Number 12, June 6, 2000, pp. 6769-6774.

Kleiman, Rabbi Yaakov. DNA & Tradition: The Genetic Link to the Ancient Hebrews. Israel: Devora Publishing, 2004.

Lavender, Abraham D. “Cavalli-Sforza, Luigi Luca : Geneticist.”  The Encyclopedia of Anthropology. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, 2006, Volume 2, pp. 451-452.

Lavender, Abraham D. “Comparing DNA Patterns of Sephardi, Ashkenazi and Kurdish Jews.” HaLapid, Volume 12, Issue 2, Spring 2005, pp. 1, 6, 7.

Livshits, Gregory, Robert R. Sokal, and Eugene Kobyliansky. “Genetic Affinities of Jewish Populations.” American Journal of Human Genetics, Volume 49, 1991, pp. 131-146.
Nebel, Almut, et al. “High-Resolution Y Chromosome Haplotypes of Israeli and Palestinian Arabs Reveal Geographic Substructure and Substantial Overlap With Haplotypes of Jews.” Human Genetics, Volume 107, 2000, pp. 630-641.

Nebel, Almut, et al. “The Y Chromosome Pool of Jews as Part of the Genetic Landscape of the Middle East. “American Journal of Human Genetics, Volume 69, 2001, pp. 1095-1112.

Patai, Raphael. Tents of Jacob: The Diaspora–Yesterday and Today. Englewood Cliffs, N.J., Prentice Hall, 1971.

Santachiara, A.S., et al. “The Common, Near-Eastern Origin of Ashkenazi and Sephardi Jews Supported by Y-Chromosome Similarity.” Annals of Human Genetics, Volume 57, 1993, pp. 55-64.

Thomas, Mark G., et al. “Founding Mothers of Jewish Communities: Geographically Separated Jewish Groups Were Independently Founded by Very Few Female Ancestors.” American Journal of Human Genetics, Volume 70, 2002, pp. 1411-1420.

Thomas, Mark G., Skorecki, Ben-Ami, Parfitt, N. Bradman. “Origins of Old Testament Priests.” Nature, Vol. 394, July 9, 1998, pp. 138-139. 306 male Jews from Israel, Canada, United Kingdom.

Tikochinski, Y., et al. “mtDNA Polymorphism in Two Communities of Jews.” American Journal of Human Genetics, Volume 48, 1991, pp. 129-136.

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